Our special thanks to Dawn Lewis, this month's
featured designer and Rosemary Powell (Simply
Samplers web site) for providing photos of the antique samplers
accompanying this feature.
Sampler making has played a vital role in women's lives throughout
history and strong sampler making traditions developed in many
countries around the world Each country retained it's own national
characteristics though there was much interplay of designs and
patterns throughout Europe and later, America. 
The
word sampler is derived from the Old French "essemplaire"
and the Latin "exemplum" meaning a kind of model or
pattern to work by, copy or imitate. The earliest known samplers
were worked in a double running stitch and pattern darning and
were found in Egyptian tombs. European samplers were influenced
by these early patterns and included designs based on the ancient
lozenge, S and X symbols worked in a running stitch. Some of
the most stunning samplers are those made before the advent of
printed patterns. New patterns and stitches were avidly collected
and exchanged among friends, passing from hand to hand, before
they could be forgotten. Many were placed in a random or haphazard
way over the cloth, virtually filling every vacant space, acquiring
the name random or spot samplers. These pieces served as practice
grounds with the needleworker jotting down new stitches and experimenting
with colors and threads.
English 16th century samplers were usually worked on a linen
ground with silk threads but some also included gold and silver
threads as well as seed pearls. The shape was typically narrow
and long (approximately 7" x 24"), the length being
determined by the loom width of the woven cloth. Few samplers
from the 16th century have survived and the signing and dating
of them was not a common practice as it later became. The earliest
dated surviving sampler was made by Jane Bostocke commemorating
the birth of her daughter, Alice Lee in 1556, though the sampler
itself was probably completed some years later. It now hangs
in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
During
Elizabeth I reign, trade between England, the East and the New
World gave tremendous impetus to the arts and the arrival of
new materials and ideas from abroad spurred exciting innovations
in embroidery design and execution. The 17th century ushered
in the golden age of sampler making. During this period samplers
were comparatively numerous and some of the most exquisite and
imaginative originated in the UK. Most of these continued to
be made for use as practice pieces for patterns, motifs and stitches.
Samplers
produced in Germany in the 17th century were worked using a simple
floral border to surround a number of geometric or alphabet motifs
placed at random. These were similar in format to the English
in shape, long and narrow, and worked mostly in cross stitch
in a variety of colors. Dutch samplers were like their German
counterparts in choice of subject and layout but were distinguished
by their shape, being either square or wider than they were long.
Samplers were also being made in Spain and it's New World possession,
Mexico, though few have survived. These were usually brightly
colored, done in silk on white linen. Alphabets and verse appeared
rarely, these being supplanted by geometric motifs as the predominant
design element. They often featured animal and bird depictions,
interspersed at random. French Samplers were square and broader
than they were long and were worked entirely in cross stitch.
They were usually done on fine muslin with many varied and subtle
floral designs making up the border. Samplers from Italy were
identical to the French in shape, but included other stitches
such as feather, double running, satin and chain stitches. Many
of these contained lovely examples of cut and drawn work and
border patterns incorporating religious motifs. While Belgian
samplers closely resembled those from Germany, a much greater
variety of stitches were employed. Scandinavian Samplers were
worked on fine muslin and often contained exquisite drawn thread
work.
In
the 17th century, samplers were worked by adult needlewomen and
were still in the form of the random and spot samplers of the
previous century, recognizable by their long and narrow shape.
They did now become more colorful and imaginative in design.
Animals, birds, flowers and fruit were worked in a fine tent
stitch with a high degree of shading. The earliest recorded human
figures appear on a piece dated 1630. The band sampler became
popular later in the century, consisting of tightly packed rows
of designs with hardly a space left unworked. These bands of
shapes consisted of both geometrical and floral motifs and employed
flowers, leaves and nuts in repeating border patterns. Many samplers
evidence a marked interest in geometric ornament and it is thought
that this aspect of their design owes a great debt to Islam.
Virtually every geometric motif of this time can be traced back
to its medieval Islamic ancestry, where due to religious taboos,
all representations of creatures and plants were converted to
geometric forms. Thus, many of the geometric designs traditionally
used on samplers are symbolic in nature and not just decorative
shapes without meaning.
During the reign of Charles I, needlework became an established
part of the school curriculum. By mid 17th century, alphabets
were included in a majority of samplers as well as the different
stitches and lace work techniques.Sampler making would become
an increasingly significant school exercise. These children's
works were of a very high standard and attest to the thoroughness
of the teacher's instruction, whose name was often included in
the finished piece.
Embroidery
continued to flourish in the 18th century, being strongly influenced
by the many exotic textiles imported from India, China and Persia.
The predominant designs were composed of stylized borders surrounding
rows of alphabets and numerals with a piece of text, verse or
inscription enveloped by motifs of birds, small animals, flowers
and trees, with the conical tree being the most commonly use.
The shape of samplers underwent a transformation, becoming shorter
and wider, thus taking on the proportions of a picture. The choice
and arrangement of subject matter was very carefully thought
out in order to create a well ordered and balanced composition.
The
materials used at this time varied: linen was still popular and
much in vogue was tammy cloth, a fine woolen canvas. Cotton was
employed as well as satin which was preferred for map samplers.
Threads regularly used were still silk and linen with the addition
of wool and cotton. Chenille was popular for use on the satin
map samplers and black silk and human hair added an air of sentimentality
on mourning samplers. A relatively small number of stitches were
still being used including cross stitch, algerian eye, double
running and four-sided stitch. By the end of the century cross
stitch would be the sole survivor of what was once an enormous
repertoire of stitches used on samplers earlier, thus becoming
known as the sampler stitch.
During the 19th century in England, rigid standards of morality
and decency were to dominate the reign of Queen Victoria and
the majority of the population was very poor. Education of children
was sorely neglected and until the introduction of state schools,
the only instruction for poor children came from Sunday schools,
charity schools or orphanages. Charity samplers were developed
to teach reading and writing skills by having the students work
row upon row of letters and numerals onto their cloth in the
hopes that they would become proficient enough in the marking
of linen, mending and darning to obtain employment either in
the service of a family or in the factories and mills that were
the backbone of the Victorian economy.
Samplers
originally found their way to America with the early settlers
and most colonial women took their needlework very seriously.
Darning, mending and marking were extremely important tasks in
the home and girls were not considered marriageable until they
had mastered the art of stitchery. The first samplers made in
the New World reflected the characteristics of the needleworker's
homeland. After the mid 18th century, a distinctly American flavor
to sampler making arose. These were much less formal and symmetrical
than previous ones and showed a novel flair in design, incorporating
a variety of stitches and colors to produce distinct and lively
works. The fabric was usually unbleached linen but light brown,
bottle green, gray and black were also popular. Tiffany, a fine
muslin-like material was also employed until linsey-woolsey (a
mixture of flax and wool) was introduced. Silk was the most widely
used thread, followed by wool and linen. Samplers in the second
half of the 18th century generally consisted of a small square
in which a verse or inscription was worked, surrounded by a very
wide border which formed the major part of the work and was intended
to be the main feature. Inside this border might appear a landscaped
scene with figures and trees and perhaps a dog, sheep or winged
cherubs. Large floral designs were often included, sometimes
worked up the sides of the border and ending with the sky at
the top. Pattern darning was often used to fill in backgrounds
and through the clever use of stitches and color, landscaped
scenes appeared highly 3-dimensional. Though cross-band samplers
were still being made, they were increasingly replaced by pictorial
types. The wide variety of stitches worked also diminished in
the late 18th century as elsewhere and cross stitch became by
far the most popular stitch for samplers.
Many traditional motifs depicted on samplers have symbolic
meanings or associations and art historians have studied these,
arriving at different conclusions for the images portrayed. They
derive from the legends and folklore of ancient peoples, images
used on heraldic emblems and religious symbols. Included are
interpretations of birds, beasts, fruit, flowers, figures, buildings
and trees, which have been used on samplers through the centuries
and all over the world. The following is a list of popular symbols
and their meanings: Dog- fidelity and watchfulness; goat- unchastity
and sensuality; squirrel- mischief; dove- charity, mercy and
love; falcon- pride and nobility; parrot- talkativeness and gossip;
phoenix- hope; chair- diligence and hospitality; ship- hope,
marriage or the soul's voyage to a safe haven; daisy- humility;
lily- purity and innocence; marigold- obedience; violet- modesty
and melancholy; apple- love and fertility; bee- diligence and
industry; tortoise- strength and slowness; mermaid- vanity; crown-
eternity and fidelity; olive tree- peace and goodwill; weeping
willow- sorrow and dejection. (For more sampler symbols and associations
see Samplers under our Web Resources section.)
In the 19th century, samplers depicting family records or
registers became very popular and remind us of the high rate
of infant mortality. In these samplers the text was often worked
inside an arch supported by columns and decorated with floral
wreaths. Others were designed in the form of genealogical trees
with the names and dates being worked inside fruits hanging from
the branches. Samplers were made in large numbers at the beginning
of the 19th century, but over the years the standard of workmanship
declined. By mid 19th century they were mostly being worked in
wool on coarse canvas. These were predominantly made by young
girls, featuring alphabets and numerals. The great age of the
American sampler was coming to a close.
Like all traditional crafts, sampler making has only been
successful when it served a purpose or fulfilled a need. When
samplers were worked for their decorative value alone, standards
deteriorated rapidly. Happily, the end of the 20th century has
witnessed a renewal of interest in both the historical samplers
that have been preserved and new design applications for this
traditional needlework form. There are patterns and motifs that
have survived 5 centuries of changing fashions and trends that
remain valid and are being rescusitated for working into textiles
today. Sampler making is once again gaining in popularity and
they are being made by serious students of the art as well as
needleworkers who consider their craft a hobby. Samplers will
always endure so long as they remain true to their original roots
and heritage, by serving some real purpose, whether as practice
pieces for beginners, notebooks for students or as commemorative
works depicting special occasions, historical events or family
trees.
If you would like to learn more about
samplers Rosmary Powell's web site Simply Samplers has an extensive
section on symbolism, historical information and other sampler
examples. Our Web Resources page also lists other sites on the
web. Dawn Lewis's samplers shown here are from her private collection.
For information on available samplers for purchase and a price
list you can contact Dawn at 524 N. Oklahoma, Morton, IL 61550.
COPYRIGHT NOTICE: No part of this feature story nor
the included designs/charts can be reproduced or distributed
in any form (including electronic) or used as a teaching tool
without the prior written permission of the CARON Collection
Ltd. or the featured designers. One time reproduction privileges
provided to our web site visitors for and limited to personal
use only.
